Author: Riddhi Bhattacharyya with guidance from Sagnik Das
How the Climate Crisis Affects Bengal:
Climate change has become an integral part of daily life in West Bengal. While catastrophic cyclones and urban heatwaves often capture media attention, the traditional lives of millions of Bengalis face an existential threat away from the spotlight. Agriculture is particularly affected, creating pressures on livelihoods and nutrition. Nandargi and Barman (2018)[1] analysed 116 years of rainfall data from West Bengal and concluded that the number of dry years has been increasing over time. During the period from 2011 to 2016, although the overall amount of rainfall was adequate, there were four severe drought years, leading to significant irrigation problems. Furthermore, Roy, Barooah, et al. (2020)[2] analysed the impact of climate change on tea pests in Assam and West Bengal and found that pest attacks have increased in tea cultivation areas due to climate change. Ghosh and Ghosal (2020)[3] studied the effects of climate change on people in the Himalayan foothills of West Bengal and discovered that climate-induced changes in rainfall and floods result in annual crop losses. In addition to agricultural impacts, there are significant housing and income losses in this area due to climate change. Weather-sensitive diseases like malaria[4], dengue[5] and heat wave attacks[6] have also increased. In urban areas, rising temperatures have led to increased use of air conditioners, contributing to higher CFC emissions and global warming[7]. This vicious cycle affects rural areas as well because the overall temperature is rising as a whole[8].
Farmers face unpredictable weather that disrupts planting and harvesting cycles, threatening food security. Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns diminish water supplies, making irrigation increasingly challenging. The once fertile lands now struggle to sustain crops, leading to economic hardship and increased migration from rural areas[9]. Climate change has harshly affected West Bengal and caused multifaceted damage, impacting agriculture[10], health[11], employment generation[12], water supply, and irrigation[13]. It has also increased pest attacks and combatting their threat is essential.[14] Additionally, due to irregular rainfall, reliance on modern irrigation techniques needs to be strengthened.
The Sundarbans region has seen a rise in cyclones due to climate change over the years.[15] The people in this region are heavily affected, often losing their mud houses and tin roofs in cyclonic turmoil.[16] Climate change also severely damages agriculture and livelihoods, causing loss of human and animal life, property, and stable lifestyles.[17] The unique wildlife, including the Bengal tiger, struggles to adapt as their habitats shrink, casting a shadow over the region's future and its natural heritage[18][19].
The 8 most vulnerable states due to climate change include Assam, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh[20]. West Bengal is the largest of these states, and has the largest population at risk. In the year 2022, there were 10 extreme weather events in West Bengal, whereas in the year 2023, this number rose to 24. According to Cross Dependency Initiative (XDI) Gross Domestic Climate Risk[21], West Bengal is supposed to become the “60th most climate risk-prone in the world by 2050” among more than 2600 regions across the world[22].
Considering the climate crisis in West Bengal, the article attempts to discuss the scope of energy transition in the region, followed by an exploration of the challenges related to the shift towards renewable energy resources. These challenges include technological, socio-economic, and political issues. The article also reviews the present policy landscape of West Bengal for taking actions against such effects of climate change, with a brief comparison with the 8 other top most vulnerable states of India[23].
2. Energy Transition Landscape:
As West Bengal battles pollution and faces the pressures of a growing population, the urgent shift from coal to renewable energy sources is necessary for cleaner air and a more sustainable future. Embracing this transition is crucial for the state to ensure a healthier environment and long-term energy security. A study by the think tank Climate Risk Horizon (2024)[24] found that West Bengal could save around ₹62,000 crores over the next decade by successfully shifting to renewable energy.[25] West Bengal Renewal Energy Development Agency (WBREDA) has undertaken various programs in West Bengal, such as village electrification through solar PV systems[26], wind farm projects[27] and tidal energy projects[28] to promote the shift toward renewable energy sources. However, these initiatives fall short of what is needed for a rapid transition. According to Ember’s analysis of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) data, Rajasthan led the installation of solar capacity in 2022, followed by Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.[29] In terms of bioenergy capacity installation, Haryana topped the list, followed by Delhi.[30] Overall, Rajasthan saw the highest rise in capacity with almost 7000 MW, followed by Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra.[31] West Bengal, on the other hand, installed only 16 MW of renewable energy capacity in 2022.[32] It failed to meet its targeted capacity generation by almost 5000 MW in 2022.[33] If West Bengal met its targeted capacity generation, steps could have been taken to ensure more capacity building; its failure to do so implies a lack of proper implementation of renewable energy policies.
A shift to renewable energy resources has become urgent in order to reduce the problems of climate change in West Bengal. Ghose, Pradhan, and Shabbiruddin (2019) noted that there is high potential for solar energy in West Bengal, but it is currently in a relatively poor state[34]. Moreover, tidal energy has great potential[35], which even WBREDA acknowledges[36], but it remains extremely underdeveloped due to a lack of proper initiative and research[37]. In the delta region of the Sundarban, tidal energy is being generated and could be widely replicated throughout the riverbanks in West Bengal by West Bengal Government[38]. Dawn, Gope, Das, Bhowmik, and Koley (2019)[39] noted, for instance, that there was a possibility of generating 900 MW of energy using tidal barrage technology in the Hooghly River, Sundarban in West Bengal. West Bengal has a hydropower potential of 6300MW. To tap this potential energy in Purulia, Khosla, Gupta and Sachdeva (2023)[40] recommended that a closed loop model should be used for the already existing reservoirs to expand installed capacity through pumped storage projects, which also protects aquatic life from anthropogenic disturbances.
At the same time, it needs to be acknowledged that a shift to renewable energy resources in West Bengal is quite challenging. West Bengal, a leading coal producer in India with 10.8% of the nation’s coal reserves, relies heavily on coal mining for the livelihoods of people in districts like Burdwan, Bankura, Birbhum, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and Purulia[41]. Transitioning to renewable energy could reduce coal demand, jeopardizing jobs in these areas. For the government to re-employ these workers in renewable energy sectors, substantial investment in training would be required, complemented with requisite private investments as well, as was the case for Gujarat[42]. Bhatia (2023)[43] explained these challenges in job and regional migration minutely and was of the view that a complete or steady energy transition for West Bengal is extremely difficult and not likely to happen soon. Moreover, Jolly (2017)[44] analysed the differences in developments between Gujarat and West Bengal in the creation of solar PV energy markets. The paper noted that the role of the state government is crucial for the implementation of entrepreneurial activities and promoting solar PV energy markets. In West Bengal, the situation until the mid-1990s restricted entrepreneurial opportunities by the government, leading to such depriving results[45]. Thus, shifting to renewable energy poses considerable challenges for West Bengal.
3. Existing Policy Landscape of West Bengal
Adapting better to climate change (as well as possibly contributing to mitigation) necessitates a thorough review of existing policies in West Bengal to prevent potential widespread emergencies. Significant challenges such as frequent cyclones, pest attacks, heat waves, irrigation issues, increasing pollution and greenhouse gases, and rising cases of climate-sensitive diseases underscore the urgency for policy review.
3.1. Green Energy Fund
The Policy on Co-generation and Generation of Electricity from Renewable sources of Energy of the Department of Power and Nonconventional Energy Sources, Govt. of West Bengal, focuses on wind farms, small, mini, and micro hydel projects, biomass projects, solar photovoltaic installations, as well as rooftop and small solar PV installations.[46] The Nodal Agency (refers to West Bengal Green Energy Development Corporation Limited) plans to create a Green Energy Fund to finance these projects, seeking funds from government and international donor agencies.[47] Additionally, the Nodal Agency will invest in renewable energy projects, with dividends reinvested into the Green Energy Fund.[48] This funding mechanism aims to sustain and expand renewable energy efforts, reducing dependence on fossil fuels[49]. This cyclical funding mechanism is designed to sustain and expand renewable energy efforts over time, contributing to the long-term goal of reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating the impacts of climate change[50]. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), in its audit report said that West Bengal has failed to create this fund and did not take serious action or initiative in this regard[51]. West Bengal government officials have promised to make renewed efforts to create the Green Energy Fund, addressing the shortcomings highlighted by the CAG in its report[52].
3.2. Awareness Generation Programme
In the heart of West Bengal, amidst the tireless daily struggle for existence, the idea of renewable energy appears almost as a mythical concept to the residents. Many locals are completely unaware of the potential of harnessing the sun and wind in place of coal. For successful implementation of Renewable Energy, it is important to promote awareness programmes among the citizens so that they save energy and value the energy transition[53]. Awareness generation programs under the Information Education and Communication Activities Dissemination Plan for 2022-2027 of State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health 2022-2027, with a budget of ₹34.5 lakhs, focus mainly on air pollution, which makes per capita investment on awareness generation ₹0.038 .[54] This includes 1000 folk programs, at least one Village Health and Nutrition Day session, wall writing, and urban Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) and Friends of Tribal Society (FTS) training on air quality and pollution impacts. Awareness generation programs under the Information Education and Communication Activities Dissemination Plan for 2022-2027 of State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health 2022-2027 is quite high for Arunachal Pradesh with around ₹17.92[55] per capita investment, Jharkhand with around ₹0.57 per capita investment[56] and Chhattisgarh with around ₹0.15 per capita investment[57]. In addition, SAPCCHH Training on air pollution and related illnesses, budgeted at ₹1.37 crore over five years, targets Medical Officers, Community Health Workers, Panchayati Raj Institutions, and communities in priority districts i.e., North 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly, Paschim Bardhaman, South 24 Parganas, Purba Medinipur, and SMP (Darjeeling).[58] However, the investment in the same training programme in Arunachal Pradesh is around ₹2.84 crores[59], Chhattisgarh is around ₹30 lakhs[60] and Jharkhand is around ₹1.89 crores[61].The per capita budget allotted as noted above for West Bengal is below ₹0.1 for awareness generation and is lesser than all the mentioned states which are equally vulnerable.
Under the Health Adaptation Plan of SAPPCCHH 2022-2027 for heat-related illnesses, ₹30 lakhs are allocated over five years for awareness programs,[62] which makes it ₹0.033 per capita investment complemented by ₹1.37 crore for officer training.[63] Surveillance and precautionary measures are in place for vector-borne diseases like Malaria and Dengue.[64] For the same programme, Arunachal Pradesh planned to invest ₹ 2.48 crores i.e., around ₹17.92 per capita investment,[65] complemented by an additional ₹ 2.84 crores[66]. West Bengal plans to adopt the National Programme on Climate Change and Human Health (NPCCHH) norms, focusing on energy auditing, LED lighting, solar panel installation, and water conservation measures like rainwater harvesting in healthcare facilities. The state has prioritized the adoption of climate-resilient infrastructure in these facilities. In comparison, Arunachal Pradesh, in addition to these initiatives, plans to introduce occupancy sensors and energy-saving appliances to further reduce energy costs[67]. This clearly indicates more budget needs to be allotted for West Bengal to aware people and mitigate the problems of climate changes by reducing energy cost.
3.3. Agriculture and Irrigation
As climate change intensifies, farmers like Swapan from Langalgram, Cooch Behar, watch in despair as their once-fertile fields struggle to maintain fertility under erratic weather patterns[i].
Fields in Langalgram, Cooch Behar
With each passing season, irrigation ditches either overflow from unexpected downpours or run dry in relentless droughts, threatening their livelihoods and the future of their crops. It is of utmost importance to mitigate these ill-effects of climate change on agriculture and irrigation. West Bengal farmers being highly dependent on rainfall for agriculture often faces crop failure due to climate change and erratic rainfall trends[68]. The West Bengal State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) 2012 promotes agricultural strategies such as crop diversification, introduction of climate-smart crop varieties, encouragement of indigenous cultivators, water harvesting, Resource Conservation Technologies up scaling, sequential cropping, seed storage development, expanding crop insurance coverage for small farmers, and encouraging public-private partnerships for strategy penetration.[69] Relatedly, a pest control scheme addresses climate change-induced pest issues.[70]
In the Sundarbans area, SAPCC 2017 proposes extensive mangrove forest plantation and awareness generation at the school level.[71] It includes developing surface and water networks, renovating jetties, enhancing agricultural inputs, extending organic farming scope, implementing coastal zone management plans, and monitoring ecological indicators for climate change impacts. Significant investments, ₹1710 crores and ₹1583 crores respectively in the 12th and 13th plans, are allocated for cyclone protection in West Bengal, particularly in the Sundarbans areas.[72]
Given current climate change impacts, water conservation is crucial. As mentioned, earlier studies have confirmed that drought has increased in Bengal due to climate change[73]. Also, given that the rainfall pattern has changed due to climate change, it is important to depend on modern irrigational techniques[74]. SAPCC 2017 focuses on watershed management, rainwater harvesting, reducing the gap between created and utilized irrigation potential, implementing coastal protection plans, and expanding piped water supply coverage.[75] The World Bank supports the West Bengal Accelerated Development of Minor Irrigation Project, benefiting 81,000 farmers on 54,000 Ha of land, including 79% of small and marginal farmers.[76] Horticulture plantations cover 950 Ha since 2019.[77] Other SAPCC plans include ensuring 1700 m³ per capita water availability annually, flood control preparedness, awareness creation, and community participation in water conservation.[78] West Bengal Government, along with the National Development Council, have initiated the process of cleaning of the Ganges river, which would ensure that proper healthy water is available to the citizens while ensuring reduction in the quantity of water pollution and ecological harm in the river water.[79] Additionally, Irrigation and Water Resources Department, Water Resources Investigation and Development Department (WRIDD), Secretariat Administration Department, India Meteorological Department, and Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Service have established high-resolution weather monitoring, river inflow monitoring, hydrograph monitoring, and an early warning system for floods, worth ₹100 crores to take ample preparation required and mitigate the risk of loss of agriculture, property and life due to climate change.[80] Additionally, State Water Investigation Directorate, WRIDD, and the Agriculture Department modernized the irrigation system using drip and sprinkler systems with a budget of ₹50 crores.[81]
3.4. Environment and ecotourism
Karmakar (2011) noted that North Bengal is quite rich in natural endowments and have a scope for Ecotourism to flourish as visitors explore the serene beauty while promoting environmental conservation and sustainable practices, ensuring the region’s natural treasures are preserved for future generations[82]. Moreover, he observed that employment in Lataguri area post 2000 increased substantially and revenue generated from tourists rose by $57460 in 2007-2008 from ecotourism[83]. Along with that, developing ecotourism is also important to promote awareness about the degrading ecological conditions of the state. The Department of Tourism, along with the Department of Forests, Panchayati Raj, Gorkha Hill Council, Biodiversity Board, Department of Environment, and Department of Science and Technology, ensures infrastructure upgrades through grants to villagers and focuses on environmental issues, with a budget of ₹1 crore.[84] The Asian Development Bank supports the West Bengal State for Climate Resilience project with $225,000 to foster gender equality, climate change resilience, environmental sustainability, and governance in rural development and agriculture.[85]
Efforts by the Forest Department, investing ₹600 crores, aim to improve forest health, ecosystem services, and enhance carbon sequestration potential through regulated grazing, invasive species control, disease management, promoting native species, and combating forest fragmentation.[86] Forest fire mitigation efforts, in recent times, have received ₹100 crores investment due to increased fire incidents from climate change impacts.[87]
3.5. Policy summary and Conclusion
Area | Amount | Purpose | Agency/Department | Report |
Awareness programs on air pollution | ₹34.5 lakhs | IEC activities dissemination, folk programs, wall writing, ASHA training | West Bengal Government | SAPCCHH 2022-2027 |
Air pollution training | ₹1.37 crore | Training Medical Officers, Community Health Workers, Panchayati Raj Institutions, communities | West Bengal Government | SAPCCHH 2022-2027 |
Heat-related illnesses awareness programs | ₹30 lakhs | Awareness programs | West Bengal Government | SAPCCHH 2022-2027 |
Heat-related illnesses training | ₹1.37 crore | Officer training | West Bengal Government | SAPCCHH 2022-2027 |
Cyclone protection | ₹1710 crores (12th Plan), ₹1583 crores (13th Plan) | Sundarbans cyclone protection | West Bengal Government | SAPCC 2012, SAPCC 2017 |
Water monitoring | ₹100 crores | High-resolution weather monitoring, river inflow monitoring, hydrograph monitoring, flood early warning | WRIDD, Secretariat Administration, IMD, INCOIS | SAPCC 2017 |
Irrigation modernization | ₹50 crores | Drip and sprinkler systems | State Water Investigation Directorate, WRIDD, Agriculture Department | SAPCC 2017 |
Forest health improvement | ₹600 crores | Regulated grazing, invasive species control, disease management, native species promotion, combating forest fragmentation | Forest Department | SAPCC 2017 |
Forest fire mitigation | ₹100 crores | Forest fire mitigation efforts | Forest Department | SAPCC 2017 |
Ecotourism development | ₹1 crore | Infrastructure upgrades, environmental issue focus | Department of Tourism, Forests, Panchayati Raj, Gorkha Hill Council, Biodiversity Board, Department of Environment, Department of Science and Technology | SAPCC 2017 |
Climate Resilience project | $225,000 | Gender equality, climate change resilience, environmental sustainability, governance in rural development and agriculture | Asian Development Bank | Asian Development Bank |
While clearly a number of policies have been put in place, it is observable that there could be more space for investments on these schemes, more specifically on the process of creating awareness and training professionals and acquiring technology with reduced energy cost as Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand invest more money on the same with less population density (mentioned in 3.2.). Serious challenges are posed when the planned schemes or initiatives fail to materialise into something concrete; an example is the case of Green Energy Fund in West Bengal by WBGEDCL (mentioned in 3.1.), mentioned above. More focus should be given to build the Ecotourism Development and more investment is necessary because the scope is immense for tourism in areas like Dooars[88], Darjeeling[89], Ajodhya Hills[90] and others (mentioned in 3.4.). Agriculture is extremely important in a country like India, so it is of utmost importance to mitigate the problems related to agriculture like pest control and irrigation (mentioned in 3.3.). Indian government agencies need to attract foreign investors like the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank in these projects by creating an atmosphere of political stability[91], investing on infrastructure[92] and building capacities of governments and NGOs to promote renewable energy[93] .
The sections above provide a snapshot of the various climate change related challenges faced by the state of West Bengal as well as the existing policy landscape in the state to combat these challenges. While clearly a number of policies have been put in place, demonstrating cognizance of the gravity of challenges that the state faces, subsequent posts will analyse in detail why more remains to be done.
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[3] Ghosh, Manoranjan, and Somnath Ghosal. "Determinants of household livelihood vulnerabilities to climate change in the Himalayan foothills of West Bengal, India." International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020): 101706.
[4] Sarkar, Soma, Poonam Singh, Mercy Aparna L. Lingala, Preeti Verma, and Ramesh C. Dhiman. "Malaria risk map for india based on climate, ecology and geographical modelling." Geospatial Health 14, no. 2 (2019): 287.
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[8] Ibid
[9] Hari, Vittal, Suman Dharmasthala, Akash Koppa, Subhankar Karmakar, and Rohini Kumar. "Climate hazards are threatening vulnerable migrants in Indian megacities." Nature Climate Change 11, no. 8 (2021): 636-638.
[10] Bandyopadhyay, Krishnendu. "Climate Change Impact on Bengal Agriculture: 60-Year Data Analysis Reveals Alarming Trends." Times of India. March 19, 2024. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/climate-change-impact-on-bengal-agriculture-60-year-data-analysis-reveals-alarming-trends/articleshow/108599052.cms.
[11] Bandyopadhyay, Krishnendu. "Rising Heat Index in Bengal Escalates Health Issues, Warn Experts." Times of India. June 14, 2024. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rising-heat-index-in-bengal-escalates-health-issues-warn-experts/articleshow/111005315.cms.
[12] Ghosh, Manoranjan, and Somnath Ghosal. "Climate change vulnerability of rural households in flood-prone areas of Himalayan foothills, West Bengal, India." Environment, Development and Sustainability 23 (2021): 2570-2595.
[13] Chatterjee, Sudip Kumar, Saon Banerjee, and Mridul Bose. "Climate change impact on crop water requirement in Ganga river basin, West Bengal, India." In 2012 3rd international conference on biology, environment and chemistry, vol. 46, p. 4. Singapore: IACSIT Press, 2012.
[14] Sarkar, Sujit, and R. N. Padaria. "Farmers’ awareness and risk perception about climate change in coastal ecosystem of West Bengal." Indian research journal of extension education 10, no. 2 (2016): 37.
[15] Mondal, Manas, Anupam Biswas, Subrata Haldar, Somnath Mandal, Pintu Mandal, Subhasis Bhattacharya, and Suman Paul. "Climate change, multi-hazards and society: An empirical study on the coastal community of Indian Sundarbans." Natural Hazards Research 2, no. 2 (2022): 84-96.
[16] "On Islands Swallowed by Water, There Is Nowhere Else to Go: Sundarbanss Mangrove Forests, River Erosion, Climate-Induced Displacement, Distress Migration." Frontline, June 23, 2023. https://frontline.thehindu.com/news/on-islands-swallowed-by-water-there-is-nowhere-else-to-go-Sundarbanss-mangrove-forests-river-erosion-climate-induced-displacement-distress-migration/article67792317.ece.
[17] Ibid
[18] Gupta, Ashmita. "Climate Change, Habitat Loss Push Bengal Tigers to Higher Ground." The Weather Channel. February 7, 2024. https://weather.com/en-IN/india/biodiversity/news/2024-02-07-climate-change-habitat-loss-push-bengal-tigers-to-higher.
[19] Islam, Md Ziaul. "A Reality Check of the Global TX2 Goals of Doubling the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) Population by 2022 in the Sundarbans Mangrove Forest." Contemporary Problems of Ecology 16, no. 6 (2023): 868-885.
[20] "8 States Most Prone to Climate Crisis: Study." Hindustan Times, June 6, 2021. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/8-states-most-prone-to-climate-crisis-study-101618772427958.html.
[21] Bandyopadhyay, Sabyasachi (Arko). "Climate Change and Its Effects in West Bengal." Ground Report. Last modified June 5, 2023. https://groundreport.in/climate-change-in-west-bengal/.
[22] Basu, Jayanta. "Climate Risk Warning for West Bengal." The Telegraph, February 23, 2023. https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/news/climate-risk-warning-for-west-bengal/cid/1918320.
[23] "8 States Most Prone to Climate Crisis: Study." Hindustan Times, June 6, 2021. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/8-states-most-prone-to-climate-crisis-study-101618772427958.html.
[24] Vishnu Teja, Ashish Fernandez. Climate Risk Horizons. "West Bengal Energy Transition." March, 2024: 9. https://climateriskhorizons.com/research/West-Bengal-Energy-Transition.pdf
[25] "Transition to Renewable Energy Could Save Bengal Rs 62,000 Cr over Next Decade: Study." The Economic Times, March 07, 2024. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/transition-to-renewable-energy-could-save-bengal-rs-62000cr-over-next-decade-study/articleshow/108307252.cms.
[26] West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency. "Solar Energy Programme." Accessed July 3, 2024. http://www.wbreda.org/solar-energy-programme/.
[27] West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency. "Wind Energy." Accessed July 3, 2024. http://www.wbreda.org/wind-energy/.
[28] West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency. "Tidal Energy." Accessed July 3, 2024. http://www.wbreda.org/tidal-energy/.
[29] Ember. "Indian State RES Target and Progress Tracker (2022)." Accessed July 3, 2024. https://ember-climate.org/data/data-tools/india-renewables-tracker/
[30] Ibid
[31] Ibid
[32] Ibid
[33] Ibid
[34] Ghose, Dipanjan, and Sudeep Pradhan. "A Fuzzy-COPRAS model for analysis of renewable energy sources in West Bengal, India." In 2019 IEEE 1st international conference on energy, systems and information processing (ICESIP), pp. 1-6. IEEE, 2019.
[35] Ibid: 4.
[36] "Tidal Energy" West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA). Accessed July 24, 2024. https://www.wbreda.org/tidal-energy/.
[37] Ghose, Dipanjan, and Sudeep Pradhan. "A Fuzzy-COPRAS model for analysis of renewable energy sources in West Bengal, India." In 2019 IEEE 1st international conference on energy, systems and information processing (ICESIP), pp. 4. IEEE, 2019
[38] Ghose, Dipanjan, and Sudeep Pradhan. "A Fuzzy-COPRAS model for analysis of renewable energy sources in West Bengal, India." In 2019 IEEE 1st international conference on energy, systems and information processing (ICESIP), pp. 4. IEEE, 2019
[39] Dawn, Subhojit, Sadhan Gope, Arup Das, Debashish Bhowmik, and Indrajit Koley. "Tidal energy as emergent energy source: A review." International Journal of Computational Intelligence & IoT 2, no. 1 (2019).
[40] Khosla, Yamini, Aashutosh Gupta, and Rivisha Sachdeva. "Best Practices in Energy Transition Under Natural Constraints in West Bengal." BDC. Accessed July 23, 2024. https://www.the-bdc.co/post/best-practices-in-energy-transition-under-natural-constraints-in-west-bengal.
[41] "Largest Coal Producing States in India." India Inputs. Accessed July 24, 2024. https://www.indiainputs.com/largest-coal-producing-states-in-india/59/.
[42] Tiwari, Shraddha. "How Each Indian State Fares in the Shift to Renewable Energy." CNBC TV18. Published June 7, 2024. https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/environment/how-each-indian-state-fares-in-the-shift-to-renewable-energy-19425109.htm.
[43] Bhatia, Parth. "India's state-led electricity transition: A review of techno-economic, socio-technical and political perspectives." Energy Research & Social Science 102 (2023): 103184.
[44] Jolly, Suyash. "Role of institutional entrepreneurship in the creation of regional solar PV energy markets: contrasting developments in Gujarat and West Bengal." Energy for Sustainable Development 38 (2017): 77-92.
[45] Ibid: 77-92
[46] Department of Power and Nonconventional Energy Sources, Govt. of West Bengal. "Policy on Co-generation and Generation of Electricity from Renewable Sources of Energy." (2012): 12-18. http://www.wbreda.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/policy-renewable-wb.pdf.
[47] Ibid: 25-26
[48] Ibid: 25-26
[49] Ibid: 25-26
[50] Ibid: 25-26
[51] "West Bengal Failed to Take Initiative to Create Green Energy Fund: CAG." ET EnergyWorld. Last modified July 18, 2019. https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/west-bengal-failed-to-take-initiative-to-create-green-energy-fund-cag/70272529.
[52] Ibid
[53] Motherway, Brian, Kristina Klimovich, Emma Mooney, and Céline Gelis. "Empowering people to act: How awareness and behaviour campaigns can enable citizens to save energy during and beyond today’s energy crisis." (2022).
[54] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: West Bengal." (2023): 33-34. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/28.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-WEST-BEANGAL.pdf.
[55] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Arunachal Pradesh." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 26. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/2.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-ARUNACHAL-PRADESH.pdf.
[56] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Jharkhand." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 32. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/10.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-JHARKHAND.pdf.
[57] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Chhattisgarh." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 40. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/5.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-Chhattisgarh.pdf.
[58] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: West Bengal." (2023): 34-36. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/28.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-WEST-BEANGAL.pdf.
[59] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Arunachal Pradesh." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 28. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/2.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-ARUNACHAL-PRADESH.pdf.
[60] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Chhattisgarh." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 41. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/5.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-Chhattisgarh.pdf.
[61] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Jharkhand." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 34. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/10.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-JHARKHAND.pdf.
[62]National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: West Bengal." (2023): 46-47. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/28.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-WEST-BEANGAL.pdf.
[63]Ibid: 47
[64]Ibid: 73
[65] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Arunachal Pradesh." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 33. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/2.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-ARUNACHAL-PRADESH.pdf.
[66] Ibid:34
[67] National Centre for Disease Control. "State Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health: Arunachal Pradesh." Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, May 2024: 51. https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/2.SAPCCHH-VERSION-1-ARUNACHAL-PRADESH.pdf.
[68] Goswami, Asutosh. "Monsoon weather fluctuations and its impact on agriculture in the western tract of West Bengal." J Agroecol Nat Resour Manag 4, no. 3 (2017): 220-223.
[69] Government of West Bengal. "West Bengal State Action Plan on Climate Change 2012-17."(2012): 97-100. https://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/West-Bengal.pdf.
[70]Ibid: 99
[71] Government of West Bengal. "West Bengal State Action Plan on Climate Change 2017-2020."(2017): 68-69. WBSAPCC_2017_20.pdf (environmentwb.gov.in)
[72] Government of West Bengal. "West Bengal State Action Plan on Climate Change 2012-17."(2012): 316-320. https://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/West-Bengal.pdf.
[73] “Bengal Faces Drought, Flood Due to Erratic Rain.” Times of India, March 29, 2023. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/bengal-faces-drought-flood-due-to-erratic-rain/articleshow/99076076.cms.
[74] Ibid
[75] Government of West Bengal. "West Bengal State Action Plan on Climate Change 2017-2020."(2017): 35-37. WBSAPCC_2017_20.pdf (environmentwb.gov.in)
[76] Ibid: 35-37
[77] Ibid: 35-37
[78] Ibid: 37-38
[79]Ibid: 38
[80] Government of West Bengal. "West Bengal State Action Plan on Climate Change 2012-17."(2012): 232. https://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/West-Bengal.pdf.
[81]Ibid: 233
[82] Karmakar, Madhusudan. "Ecotourism and its impact on the regional economy–a study of North Bengal (India)." Tourismos 6, no. 1 (2011): 251-270.
[83] Ibid: 260-263
[84] Ibid: 307-308
[85] Asian Development Bank. "India: West Bengal State for Climate Resilience” https://www.adb.org/projects/57334-001/main.
[86]Ibid: 258
[87]Ibid: 261
[88] Debnath, Pallab, and Arup Saha. "Potential benefit of eco-tourism of dooars in Alipurduar district of West Bengal." International Journal of Research in Social Sciences 9, no. 5 (2019): 304-317.
[89] Bhutia, Sherap. "Sustainable tourism development in Darjeeling hills of West Bengal, India: Issues & challenges." Global Journal of Human-Social Science 15, no. 3 (2015): 1-10.
[90] Mishra, Mukunda. "Examining the prospect of sustainable and rural tourism in Purulia." (2019).
[91] Haudi, H., Hadion Wijoyo, and Yoyok Cahyono. "Analysis of most influential factors to attract foreign direct investment." Journal of Critical Reviews 7, no. 13 (2020):4130.
[92] Ibid:4130
[93] Martinot, Eric. "Renewable energy investment by the World Bank." Energy Policy 29, no. 9 (2001): 689-699.
[i]interviewed for this piece.